An Outline of Turkish History from its Inception to 1350

An Outline of Turkish History from its Inception to 1350

Throughout history the Turks have established numerous states in
different geographical areas on the continents of Asia, Europe and
Africa. Therefore, they encountered different cultures, they influenced
these cultures and were influenced by them.

The Chinese records reported that the first appearance of the Turks in
history was in the Kömen Mountains, where the most ancient remains were
found. The culture referred to as Tagar, featuring remains found on the
Tagar Island at the Yenisei River on the northern foot of the Köğmen
Mountains and dating back to the seventh century B.C., is attributed to
the ancient Turks. The Tagar Culture, however, originated from another
ancient culture called the Karasuk which flourished on the same shores,
which dates back to two thousand B.C.

It is accepted that Turkish political history in Asia starts with the
Huns. The Hun State , which first appeared in the third century B.C.,
became a significant and powerful state during the reign of its
founder, Mete Khan, and passed through fundamental changes,
economically and socially, due to her relations with China. Having a
defined and certain strategy, Mete first of all defeated the Mongolians
and then the Yuechis, and thereafter, having taken the western gates
and trade routes of China under his control, he gained significant
economic power. This systematic expansion policy resulted in the
seizure of Eastern Turkestan, the wheat and provisions granary, by the
Huns.
After the collapse of the Asian Hun State, a new state called the
Göktürk was founded by the Turkish tribes who adopted the traditions
and administrative experiences of the Huns. The Göktürk State (552-740)
is the second great state established by the Turks. Unlike the Huns,
the Göktürks attached particular importance to urbanization, realized
agricultural reforms and seed improvement and "sagacity" was the
foremost concept.


Bilge Khan and Kultegin took their place in history as the wisest and
most heroic figures among Turkish statesmen. They asserted that the
state could not be ruled only by fighting and bravery and the Khanate
should also require wisdom. It was because of this that both the Khans
and Tonyukuk, another Göktürk Khan, immortalized their accomplishments
with inscriptions. These inscriptions are the first written texts of
the Turkish language.

The Göktürk State collapsed after struggles with the Chinese, on the
one hand, and with the Turkish tribes within the state, such as the
Dokuz O¤uzlar, Karluks and Basm›ls, on the other hand. The Uigur Turks,
who were the native tribes of the Orhun and Selenge valleys, founded
the third great Turkish state. The Uigur State (741-840) attached
importance to trade and continued the traditions and customs of the
Göktürks. The trade developed and the Manichean temples were turned
into bazaar temples in time due to the influence of Manicheism, the
official religion.

The warlike aspects of the Uigurs gradually grew weaker in time as they
developed culturally and commercially. The Kyrgyz Turks living to the
northwest, took advantage of this situation and planned a surprise
attack on the Uigur capital city, which resulted in a war and at the
end the Uigur state collapsed.

The Western Turks. A group of Huns who migrated towards the West first
settled in a region to the north of the Black Sea extending to the
Danube River. First the Huns made raids on Iran and Anatolia via the
Caucasia, and then they attacked the territories of the Eastern and
Western Roman Empires. They fought with the Franks in 428, and two
years later, reached the areas which are presently the Netherlands and
Denmark. The Western Huns, who were known as the first Turkish state
founded in Europe, became a great state with territories extending from
the banks of the Rhine to the Volga River, under the leadership of
Attila the Hun. This state played an important role in transmitting
Eastern civilization to the West, and organized campaigns to Italy, the
Balkans and Gaul in the reign of Attila. The Western Hun State
collapsed a short time after Attila passed away (470).

During the collapse of the Hun Empire in Europe, a new wave of tribal
migrations started in Central Asia. The north of the Black Sea was
confronted with a new wave of Turkish migration. The first tribes to
arrive were the Sabirs, Sarogurs and Onogurs. These Ogur tribes, who
settled to the north of the Caucasus, raided the Byzantine territories
from Macedonia to Thessaly. It is known that the Bulgarian Turks also
came to this region along side the Ogur Turks. Byzantine sources refer
to the name "Bulgarian" for the first time in 482. In fact, the Avars,
with the Bulgarian Turks under their sovereignty, sieged the Byzantine
capital at the beginning of the seventh century. The Avars , who left
their homeland in Central Asia and who escaped towards the West when
the Göktürk State was founded in 552, had an important place in the
history of Europe. They first came to Caucasia and the north of the
Black Sea, made an agreement with the Byzantines and fought against,
and defeated, Turkish tribes such as the Sabirs and Onogurs on behalf
of the Byzantines. They expanded to the banks of the Danube River, over
the lands of the Ants, a Slavic tribe. From time to time, they made
raids throughout the Balkans and even as far as the Peloponnese in
Greece. They sieged Istanbul in 626 together with the Bulgarian Turks.
The borders of the Avar Empire extended from the Dnieper to the Elbe
River and from the North Sea to the Adriatic Sea during the reign of
their famous ruler Bayan Khan. The Avar Empire collapsed between
776-803 due to the concurrent attacks of Kurum Khan, the leader of the
Bulgarian Turks and Charlemagne (Charles the Great). Present
excavations and research in Hungary and Central Europe reveal that the
Avars had an exemplary organization within the state and the army and
attained a high level of civilization.

During the period of disintegration of the Sabir State in the east of
Europe, a new Turkish state called the Khazars came into existence. The
Khazars, who were considered to be the continuation of the Western
Göktürks, took over their military and civilian organizations. This
state, which ruled for over 300 years bears the name of "Turk" in
Arabian, Syrian and Byzantine sources. The Khazars acted as an allied
force of the Byzantines in the war between Byzantium and Iran. It is
observed that the Arabs who occupied Azerbaijan around the beginning of
the eighth century, also raided Khazar territories and occupied their
capital city Belencer (in Dagestan).

The war between the Khazars and the Caliphate continued for almost 25
years. The Khazar armies once again went to the south of the Caucasus
from 762 AD and occupied all of Azerbaijan and Armenia, and Ras Tarhan,
the Khazar commander advanced up to Georgia. The Khazars were
threatened afterwards by other Turkish tribes, and especially by the
Russians. Their state collapsed towards the end of the tenth century
due to their long lasting wars against the Pechenegs.

Another Turkish tribe living in Eastern and Southeastern Europe and the
Balkans was the Pechenegs. The Pechenegs, an Oghuz tribe, whose initial
settlement around Balkhash Lake moved on to the nearby Aral Sea during
the fight between the Göktürks and Uigurs. Then they moved further
towards the West and fought against the Khazars. They occupied the
Cuman plains and expelled the Hungarians ruling the lands between the
Don and Dnieper Rivers towards the West. Giving assistance to the
Russians in their fights with the Khazars, they played a role in the
founding of this state. The Pechenegs, who ruled a territory extending
from the Don River to the Danube River in the tenth century, made raids
on Byzantine territories from the middle of the eleventh century.
However, they were decisively defeated by the joint forces of the
Cumans and Byzantines beside the Lower Maritsa River in 1091. Some of
the separate Pecheneg groups who could not represent a political
existence after this defeat were settled in the territories of the
Byzantine Empire. Those who stayed in the Balkans and Hungary settled
there and were assimilated. Turkish History in the Islamic Period.
After the decline of the Uigur State, the Karahanid State was founded
in 840 by the Turkish tribes such as the Karluks, Çigils and Arguls.
The reign of the Karahanids is considered to be a turning point in
Turkish history, because Islam was accepted as the official religion
during the reign of Satuk Buğra Khan, the Karahanid leader. Being the
first Muslim Turkish state established in Central Asia, they laid the
foundations of an historical development called Turkish-Islamic culture
and civilization.

The Karahanids, whose first city of governance was Kashgar and second
was Balasagun to the north, was divided between two brothers in 1042:
the Eastern Karahanids and the Western Karahanids. The Eastern
Karahanid State survived until 1211 and then accepted the sovereignty
of the Great Seljuk State. Islamic-Turkish literature was developed
during the rule of the Karahanid State which was customarily governed
by just, religious, and culture loving Khans and Kashgar and Balasagun
became important cultural centers.

At the time of the rule of the Karahanids, there was another Turkish
state of which the capital city was Ghazna in Afghanistan. The most
powerful period of the Ghaznavid State (936-1187) was the reign of
Mahmud of Ghazna who used the title of "Sultan" for the first time.
Sultan Mahmud, who organized many campaigns to India, took these places
under Turkish rule, Islamized them and laid the foundation for today's
State of Pakistan. The rulers succeeding Sultan Mahmud could not
maintain this brilliant period. The Ghaznavids had to retreat to India
after the Dandanakan War with the Seljuks in 1040 and finally came
under the sovereignty of the Seljuks.

Another great Turkish state was the Seljuk State (1040-1157) founded by
the Seljuk Bey who was a member of the Kinik tribe of the Oghuz Turks.
The borders of the state covered an area from the Marmara Sea to the
Balkhash Lake in Central Asia and from the Caucasus, the Caspian Sea
and the Aral Sea to the borders of India and Yemen. Therefore, it was
named the Great Seljuk State. At the time of Seljuk rule, there were
also two other great and strong Turkish states, namely the Karahanids
and Ghaznavids. The Seljuks entered into a struggle of hegemony with
these two Turkish states and were successful in establishing Turkish
unity. Togrul Bey, the Sultan of the Seljuks, entered Baghdad, the
Abbasid Caliphate capital and ended the domination of the Buwayhids, a
Persian Shiite dynasty, in 1055. Therefore, the Caliph bestowed on
Togrul Bey the title of "Ruler of the World". During the reign of
Sultan Alp Arslan, the successor of Togrul Bey, the territories of the
country expanded significantly.

The most significant events of this period were the clashes with the
Byzantine Empire. Sultan Alp Arslan inflicted a crushing defeat on the
Byzantine army under the leadership of Romanus Diogenes at Manzikert
(Malazgirt) in 1071. This victory firmly established Turkish rule in
Anatolia.

During the reign of Sultan Malik Shah, one of the most powerful rulers
of the Seljuks, the Seljuk State experienced her most successful period
in the fields of military, science, politics and literature. Madrasahs
(theological schools) were opened all over the country. The most
important of these was the Nizamiye Madrasah constructed by the Vizier
Nizam al-Mülk which was the foundation for the architecture of the
Western universities.



After Sultan Malik Shah died, the country was divided into small
states. The Syrian Seljuks (1092-1117), Iraq and Khorasan Seljuks
(1092-1194), Kirman Seljuks (1092-1187) and the Anatolian Seljuks
(1092-1194) were among the small states. During the disintegration
period of the Great Seljuk State many small beylics and atabeylics were
also established on the Anatolian territories of the state. These
beylics played an important role in making Anatolia Turkish through the
Turkish population they brought and also the architectural works they
made. These beylics had a significant affect in the strengthening of
the Anatolian Seljuk State which was established later in Anatolia.

Moreover, the Khorezm Shah State (1097-1231) was established by
Mohammed Khorezm Shah, the son of Anushtegin, the palace servant of
Sultan Malik Shah, on the territories of the Great Seljuk State. The
Khorezm Shah State made significant progress in science and politics.

The most important state established in the place of the Great Seljuk
State is definitely the Anatolian Seljuk State. Suleiman ibn Qutulmish
who established himself at Nicaea (Iznik) in 1078 tried to expand
Turkish rule in Anatolia and he managed to spread his rule all over
Anatolia in a short period of time. During the reign of his son, Kiliç
Arslan I, the First Crusade began, Iznik was seized by the Crusaders
and given to the Byzantines. Kiliç Arslan I then established himself in
the city of Konya and started a war of attrition against the invaders.
However, he could not stop the Crusaders who were heading towards
Syria. The efforts to unify Anatolia under Turkish rule were also
continued during the reign of his successor, Sultan Mesud I. He
repelled the Byzantine army headed for Konya and defeated the Crusaders
near the Ceyhan River. Sultan Kiliç Arslan II, the successor of Mesud
I, made the Byzantine intrigues against the Turks ineffective and
inflicted a heavy defeat on the Byzantine army under the leadership of
the Emperor Manuel Comnenus I, at Myriokephalon near Denizli (1176).
Following this victory, the influence of the Byzantine Empire over
Anatolia was completely lost. Thereafter, trade flourished and
construction activities accelerated. Caravanserais were built on the
roads and shipyards were constructed in Sinop and the Mediterranean,
the madrasahs were opened and important developments were made in
science. The most brilliant period of Turkish history was experienced
during the reign of Sultan Alaeddin Keykubad I. However, the death of
the Sultan by poisoning created chaos in the country. The
religio-political rebellion of the Babais was followed by the Mongolian
invasion and Anatolia was occupied by the Mongolians after the Kösedag
War between the Seljuks and Mongolians in 1243. Along with the
weakening of the Mongolian rule towards the end of the thirteenth
century, the Turkoman groups who were settled at the frontiers during
the Seljuk period, founded many beylics (principalities) of varying
sizes in Anatolia. The Karaman, Germiyan, Esref, Hamid, Mentese,
Candar, Pervane, Sahib Ata, Karesi, Saruhan, Aydin, Inanç and
Osmanogullari were among the Turkoman beylics founded in Anatolia in
this period. In this period, which is called the Beylics Period, all of
Anatolia came under Turkish rule and a new period of welfare began in
the country which had been previously exposed to a great extent to
Mongolian destruction. As a matter of fact, the Ottoman state was
founded on these solid foundations.

In Egypt, the army commander Izzeddin Aybeg was declared the Sultan,
after the death of es-Salih Necmeddin, the last Ayyubid ruler and thus
the Turkish Kölemen (Mameluke) State (1250-1382) was founded. The
Mameluke State has an important place in Turkish history, because
during the reign of Sultan Aybeg, the Mansure Victory was won which
made the Seventh Crusade ineffective. During the reign of Seyfeddin
Kotuz, the Mongolian-Armenian-Crusaders alliance which tried to invade
Egypt suffered a heavy defeat and the Mongolians were not able to enter
Syria. During the period of the later Sultans, the Christian hegemony
in Syria would end and the territories extending to Kayseri in Anatolia
would be taken under the rule of the Mameluke Sultanate. In addition,
trade between the east and the west developed during this period. The
Mameluke Sultans were bestowed the title of "Hadimü'l-Harameyn" (the
Servant of Mecca and Medina), due to their services to Islam, and
acquired a justified fame in the Islamic World. The Mameluke State was
wiped out by the Ottoman State.

One of the most important states of the fourteenth century was the
Tamerlane State (1370-1507). It was founded by Tamerlane, who was a
provincial governor in one of the Çagatay khanates. The borders of the
state extended from the Volga River to the Ganges River in India, and
from the Tanri Mountains to Izmir and Damascus. Tamerlane, who had a
violent character, caused great damage during his military expeditions.
The state became an empire in a period of 35 years. It disintegrated
just as rapidly as it was established after the death of Tamerlane.
Muhammed, his grandson, founded a state in Samarkand. Pir Muhammed and
Iskender, his other grandsons, founded a state in Iran. Miranshah, his
son, founded states in Baghdad and Azerbaijan. Shahruh, his younger
son, founded a state in Khorasan. During the period of Shahruh, who
tried to establish unity by enlarging the borders of his state, a
brilliant cultural life was started. His son Ulug Bey ascended the
throne as a well-known astronomer. Only Hüseyin Baykara from the
Tamerlane dynasty could manage to hold out in Khorasan. Herat, the
capital city, became one of the most significant cultural centers of
Turkish history. Ali ½ir Nevai, the Turkish poet and statesman, was
educated here. Herat was seized by the Uzbeks after the reign of
Baykara and the Tamerlane dynasty disappeared. When the Tamerlane State
was established, the Turkoman group of the Karakoyunlu, which settled
between Irbil and Nakhichevan, founded a state, the center of which was
Tabriz. This state formed by the Yiva, Yazir, Döger and Avsar tribes of
the Oghuz Turks was called the Karakoyunlu State (1380-1469). The
Karakoyunlu State fought with Tamerlane. Kara Yusuf, the ruler of the
Karakoyunlu State, had to take refuge in the Ottoman state during the
reign of Yildirim Beyazid as a result of pressure by Tamerlane. This
strained relations between the Ottomans and the Tamerlanes and was
considered to be a reason for the Ankara War of 1402. Kara Yusuf, who
managed to recover after this war, reestablished his state after 1406
and captured Mardin, Erzincan, Baghdad, Azerbaijan, Tabriz, Kazvin, and
Sultaniye. After his death, the country was

dragged into chaos. Although Cihan-shah managed to reunify the state,
he was defeated by Akkoyunlu Uzun Hasan at Mardin and the country
entered under the hegemony of the Akkoyunlu State.